Shikara (Boat)~ Kashmir

Introduction:

Usage:

Also called the ‘camel of Dal lake’ due to its importance, these multi-functional shikaras are a lifeline for the people of Kashmir. From transportation to fishing and harvesting aquatic vegetation, shikaras are a cultural symbol in the region. Some are even used as floating homes (mostly by the poor), and as makeshift shops by the locals who sell a variety of products to the tourists travelling through the Dal lake. These boats also help circulate waters for more oxygen mixing and thereby improves water ecology.

Furthermore, in Kashmiri weddings and celebrations, Shikaras play a pivotal role. The groom’s procession, known as the ‘Baraat’, arrives in grand Shikaras, adding a touch of regality to the festivities.

Significance:

The shikaras of Kashmir are more than just a mode of accommodation; they constitute an integral part of the culture of the region. They have silently witnessed the ebbs and flows of Kashmir’s history and remained mute witnesses to cultural exchanges, ranging from simple trade to tourists and even political tensions.

Besides the wooden objects’ traditional usage, the tranquil Shikara rides often serve as an inspiration for soulful Kashmiri folk songs and romantic tales. Moreover, the Shikara boat has inspired numerous artists, writers, and poets over the centuries. It continues to find a place in the heart of all creative people.

Myths & Legends:

Where there are humans, where there is water, there exist boats, there exist stories. There are many famous stories about how boats were introduced in Kashmir.

In Nilamata Purana, the origin of Kashmir valley is connected with the Matsya Avatar story. A great deluge, a divine boat of feminine power ferrying all life on the eternal waters of deathless eternal Shiva and this boat being rowed by Narayan in the form of a fish. The story conforms to the strain of Kashmir Shaivism in which female power Shakti brings about the experienced world to life through her interaction with Shiva. In this story half-human, half-fish Narayan is the rower, the doer, the action. The story is told in context of Naubandhana tirath, a mountain site near Kramasaras which we now know as Kausar nag located in the Pir Panjal Range in the Kulgam District’s Noorabad, the site where the divine boat was moored. The story is eerily similar to Abrahamic tale of Noah’s Arc and Jonah. Kashmir was born out of water. Myths as well geology tells us that much.

As early as the Rigvedic period, there are references which point to a knowledge of the sea and the practice of navigation. The Rigveda refers to ships with a hundred oars used for trade and warfare, while the Arthashastra provides details on the construction and use of different types of ships. While it is quite difficult to credit the person who built the first ship, ancient Indian texts and legends refer to the divine architect Vishwakarma with the knowledge of shipbuilding. Historical records also mention significant maritime expeditions, such as the voyage of Bodhidharma, an Indian Buddhist monk who traveled to China in the 5th or 6th century CE, illustrating the advanced state of Indian shipbuilding and navigation.

More concrete evidence can be found in an 8th century sculpture found in Devsar that shows the earliest model of a Kashmiri boat. The sculpture depicts five Matrikas, the protective mother goddesses being carried on a boat along with musicians. It is a boat procession, probably a representation of the idol immersion scene, something still done in Bengal.

Historical texts are a bit descriptive about the type of boats in Kashmir and how they came into existence. Pravarasena II, late 6th century, can be considered the builder of Srinagar as the place of canals, bridges and water bodies, the way it is even seen now. He is also referred to as the builder of the first boat-bridge in Srinagar, somewhere near the present Zaina Kadal. If the bridge was of boats, we can assume it was the work of boatmen. Kalhana also mentions many boat journeys, however in his text not much is written about the people who made these journeys possible.

There is also a modern theory popular in Kashmir that Hanjis (boatmen) were “imported” from Sri Lanka in Kashmir by an ancient King. Multiple books and experts mention it, often mentioning the name of the king as Parbat Sen and place named as Sangaldip. However, more evidence to prove this theory is yet to be found.

It has always been said that Kashmir lakes used to be dangerous and were impossible to navigate for a long time. Most fascinating is the story of creation of Zaina Lank (an island) in Wular Lake, once the most feared lake of Kashmir. To build the Island, boatmen were employed by Zain-ul-abdin and they chose a site where there was a submerged temple, they knew this to be the perfect site. Baharistan-i-Shahi (1614) mentions that Zaina got an architect named Duroodgiri from Gujarat to build him a boat shaped like a ship with sails. The boat was used to build the Island that made Wular lake accessible to humans. It was boatmen who were hired to do it. This was also the boat that the famous King used for sailing on Kausar Nag listening to ancient works while visiting Naubandhana site.

Moreover, the beginnings of boat building in India is said to go back to the third millennium BCE, to the Harappa times. The Indus Civilization constructed the first tide dock of the world for berthing and servicing ships at the port town of Lothal.

History:

India has always been a largely self-sufficient country, having the skills and the knowledge to invent things on their own.

Although not named shikara during the period, the first traces of boat making in Northern India can be found in Rajatarangni, the 12th century chronicle on kings of Kashmir, where there is a mention about ancient canals lined by trees with their ageing trunks and ropes meant for anchoring boats. However, the information that can be gathered from the source is quite limited.

However, more concrete evidence points to how boat making first began in scatters in the southern part of India, around 3000 BCE. It is said that the master brain behind building shades over the boats was that of a British man, who on one of his journeys across the waters suggested this idea to build a bamboo roof overhead. Soon called ‘Kettuvallam’ (‘Kettu’ means ‘to tie’ and ‘Vallam’ means ‘boat’), this gave rise to the creation of exquisite floating houses.

Moreover, as per history, boat making in North and South India remained disconnected for a long time, leading to similar circumstantial inventions in both the areas.
And the beginning of Shikaras also connects with the origin of houseboats in Kashmir, a classic story of necessity being the mother of all inventions. During the Dogra rule that spanned around 106 years, from 1846 to 1952, Srinagar was commissioned as the capital of the Dogra territory. The Dogra ruler Maharaja Ranbir Singh of Kashmir had imposed several restrictions on the building of houses in the valley. Under its peculiar land ownership laws, Kashmir did not allow a non-native to own land. Consequently, foreigners could neither rent nor purchase land for erecting hotels. This law also applied to Swami Vivekananda, who went back empty handed, when he wanted to make an Ashram in Kashmir. During one of the pilgrimage rides on a Doonga boat, we get to know how Vivekananda worshiped the four-year-old daughter of his Muslim boatman as Goddess Uma. The act was in line with his beliefs about reforming the caste views of his own community. This is one of the few native accounts of boat travel in Kashmir of that era. Moreover, the land laws of the region continued till recently when the law was lifted in August 2019.

However, the British found a loophole in this rule and the idea of a ‘floating camp’ was born. These houseboats came to be known as ‘each one a little piece of England afloat on Dal’. General Denloff of the British army who got a doonga (small boat) ‘Mermaid’ built for himself is said to have been the first to make a sketch of a Houseboat containing wood walls, windows, and deck. Moreover, the early European boats were given names like HB Duke Wells, or New Buckingham Palace. The earlier settlers were fishermen and hence their dwelling on the rivers was only logical and practical. Their boats, which were covered by thatch roofs, were converted into the Doonga boats over passage of time. Soon after Doonga Boat, a Doonga Houseboat with a terrace on the top was built. The terrace was built for sunbathing, for enjoying breakfast, and candlelight dinners were and are still being enjoyed on these Houseboats.

Even, according to a British missionary and educationist, Tyndale Biscoe, the houseboat is an indigenous innovation of Kashmir and the local Hanjis have played a pivotal role in its development. Historian Mohammad Ishaq Khan also talks about Donga boats in his book, History of Srinagar, where he writes, “Donga was a moving tent to accommodate tourists. The tourists would carry along food and other essential items while staying in the Donga and for assistance they would also bring servants along.”

Some other evidence talks about Pandit Naraindas, who was one of the few English-speaking Kashmiri at the time. After schooling Pandit Narain started a shop catering to the needs of the foreigners. The shop became an immediate success and he made a good living. Unfortunately, this wooden shop got gutted in fire, not a sabotage but it was a common phenomenon those days for wooden structures.
Not getting demotivated, he set up shop on a boat near a Hanji community. Since wooden buildings are prone to catching fire, he thought of shifting the remaining goods to a doonga, a small boat used by hanjis for residential purposes, and moored it at a suitable site. Soon he began to improve his shop by replacing its matted walls and roof with planks and shingles. This was the first houseboat afloat.
It is said that after building his houseboat, Naraindas was approached for sale by a European who had taken a fancy to his boat. He went on to sell his boat at a profit and soon realized that this was a way better deal than the deals he was making in his store business. This gave Narayan the idea of going into boatbuilding; his first houseboat, “The Kashmir Princess”, was finished in 1885. Thus, the idea of a houseboat came into existence and soon after that, gained popularity. Till the year 1948, his family alone had built and managed some 300 houseboats. Kashmiris who are well known for giving nicknames called him “Nava Narain” (or Boat Narayan). Narain Joo however gave up this business after independence of India when the foreign tourist business started dwindling.

P. N Madan, Director of Tourism for the State in early 60s however gives an alternative story to this beginning. According to him there was documented evidence to prove that a Gondola styled houseboat was in fact commissioned in around 1880 by one General Thatcher. Since Thatcher did not know the local language, in order to pass orders to the builders, he used the English language services of a fourteen-year-old Pandit Nariandas. Thatcher stayed in the houseboat for the summer and at the end of the tour sold the houseboat to Narain Das for Rs. 200. That is how Narain Das got into the business of boat making.

Another segment of Kashmiri history says that according to the famous British army officer and explorer Sir Francis Younghusband, a sport loving person named MT Kennard first established a floating house sometime between 1883 and 1888 and that’s how the concept of a houseboat came into being.

Moreover, after the idea of houseboats was launched, Kashmiri enterprise and ingenuity took care of the rest and, beginning in the 1850s, the area’s dungas and bahach (cargo boats with open sides) were converted into elaborate houseboats to cater to the needs of the British visitors. When houseboats first appeared on Kashmiri waterways, they were much smaller (about 40 feet in length). But as needs evolved, the visiting British clientele had less time to spend on leisurely holidays and wanted more spacious accommodations, which gave rise to much larger floating hotels on these lakes. Around 1897, Swami Vivekananda’s travel diaries documents, among many other things, his stay in a houseboat. So, we can safely assume that the houseboats were already popular by then.

But the British were not the first to spot the scenic potential of living in a boat in such charming surroundings. Kashmiri lakes and rivers had always supported a riverine culture, and the grand Mughals made the most of it. Emperor Jahangir would snake up and down the Jhelum on moonlit nights, while his musicians serenaded the royal party from other boats. Even, according to the Ain-i-Akbari, the official biography of the Mughal Emperor Akbar, he was so fascinated by the beauty of Dal Lake that he summoned Indian and Persian artisans to build him a double-storied houseboat where he could conduct his official audiences but also host intimate celebrations and musical evenings.
In Ain-e-Akbari we read about the emperor wanting to build a houseboat: a boat modeled on the design of Zamindar house of Bengal, a two storied structure with many beautifully carved windows. For this he had many boats destroyed and then got an architect from Bengal to design his dream boat. It is believed Akbar was so pleased with his innovation that he built many more houseboats lined up along the River Jhelum. These are the boats we see floating in lake bodies of Kashmir in Mughal paintings. Abu’l Fazl writes about Akbar’s visit, “this country there were more than 30,000 boats but none fit for the world’s lord, able artificers soon prepared river-palaces (Takht-i-Rawans), and made flower gardens on the surface of water.”
Ain-i-Akbari also talks about how food rations arrived in big ‘bahat’ boats, material needed to build houses arrived in still bigger war boats. Fuel needed for cooking, ‘lobur’ dung cakes were delivered by ‘Lobur Haenz’ in ‘Khachu’ boats. Utensils, vegetables, mats, milk and other essentials were delivered in a ‘Dembnav’. Water chestnuts were provided by ‘Gari Haenz’, while fish was provided by ‘Gaade Haenz’, who would catch fish in ‘Gadavari’ boats. People and news travelled on fast moving Shikara, while for longer journeys and pilgrimages there were Doongas. For crossing demonic waves of Wular, one could rely on ‘Tsatawar’, a small roofless small boat. This was the life in Kashmir, as described in the scripts, completely animated by the boats and their engines – the boat people ever whizzing across the rivers, canals and lakes, like blood running through the veins, shedding sweat, pumping life.

There is also some proof of Aurangzeb’s attempt in around 1655 to build ships to compete with Europeans. Italians were sent to build the ship in the waters of Kashmir. Two such ships were made but the experiment failed because the boatmen in Kashmir failed to get the hang of these foreign warships. Kashmiri boatmen in fact were an essential part of the Mughal Imperial Nawara Fleet or River Boat fleet. They were said to have played an important part in Akbar’s conquest of Bengal.

After India attained independence, the Kashmiri Hanjis (a tribe classified as semi-nomadic, wherein people work in different trades based on seasons), built and maintained these houseboats, repurposing them into hotels catering to visiting Indian tourists, marketing them as ‘floating palaces’.
Then, in the 1960s, the houseboats became a popular draw for international travelers on the so-called ‘Hippie Trail’, an overland route between Europe and Southeast Asia.

A shikara was then built for each houseboat to carry visitors to and from the shore. They soon become useful for the transport of fruits, vegetables and fish as well. The gardens and houseboats in Dal Lake could be reached using shikaras. Guests on a houseboat are given free shikara services by houseboat owners. Shikaras functioned as water taxis for sightseeing, cruising, and as the means to access houseboats. Thus, initially simple dug-out canoes, these boats evolved into the beautifully carved wooden Shikaras we know today.

Although it is claimed that the concept of these boats was English borne when they first arrived in Kashmir, the old folks who have been living here for generations say that the ancient Kashmiri literature that dates back to the 13th century, mentions the presence of these houseboats in Kashmir valley lakes.

By the mid 1900s, though not many tourists arrived, some interesting people from the artist community arrived to revive the magic of Kashmir in people’s minds. S.H. Raza the world-famous painter arrived and stayed on a houseboat in Jhelum. The houseboat became a hub for budding artists of Kashmir who would watch him paint and out of these artists came the artists who started the Progressive art movement of Kashmir. Early art exhibitions were held on houseboats, so the houseboats became an art studio. Soon, even anthropologists, sociologists, photographers and journalists used these boats to document the life of water people. During this period, “Jash” cultural boat rides were organized in Kashmir.

These boats gained a lot of fame after the Bollywood movies in the 1970s, like Shami Kapoor’s ‘Kashmir ki Kali’ and Shashi Kapoor’s ‘Jab Jab Phool Khile’, which were all extensively shot on shikaras, besides the iconic songs. Thereafter, it became a dream ride for honeymooners during their stay in Kashmir.

Despite the origins of these boats going back to old times, it was modern tourism that majorly popularized Kashmiri houseboats. They became so iconic that when militancy effectively curtailed tourism in the state, Kerala moved swiftly to turn its own rice boats into a new generation of houseboats.

Design:

Shikara houseboats are a masterpiece of traditional architecture which has no rival in terms of beauty. The shikara boat is designed for comfort. It has a canopy-like roof, to prevent snow buildup, which is supported on four pillars and also protects the rider from direct rays of rays and rain. It is open on all four sides, and has a pointed bow and a flat bottom, designed to navigate the calm water bodies in the region. These boats come in various sizes, from small ones that can accommodate a couple to larger ones capable of carrying a family or a small group of tourists.

The boat is around 25 to 41 feet in length. The pointed front end is followed by a central section made of 8 planks of wood and the boat eventually ends in a flat rear segment. Two planks of wood lend to each of the side elevations a vertical height of 1.5 feet. It has a conspicuous spade shaped base. The centre and the ends are equipped with iron anchor rings and wooden pegs, which are used to fasten the shikara on the banks of the lake.

These boats, adorned with intricate carvings and colorful decorations, are more than just vessels; they are a testament to the unparalleled craftsmanship and artistic talent of the people of Kashmir. Skilled artisans carve intricate patterns and motifs into the wood, often depicting scenes from Kashmiri folklore, the region’s natural beauty, and religious symbols. Intricate wooden work with Islamic patterns and inspired Persian designs, reflect the rich influence of the region over the centuries from various parts of the world. They design boats that are not just functional but each also act as a piece of art that tells a story.

In addition to the beautiful carvings, Shikaras are adorned with a riot of colors that make them stand out against the backdrop of the azure lakes. The boatmen and artisans use vibrant paints and textiles to decorate the boat’s interiors and exteriors. Colorful upholstery, curtains, cushions, and canopies adorn some of these boats, giving a sense of warmth and hospitality to the boat. These textiles, with their colorful embroidered patterns add a touch of elegance to the Shikara. A comfortable bedding and soft Kashmiri carpets is also added to every boat, which allows one to enjoy their ride in a relaxing manner. Nowadays, some shikaras also have LED lightning, which makes them glow in the dark.

Very colourful shikaras can be found in Kashmir. The iconic red, green, and gold colors dominate the Shikara’s décor, reflecting the traditional color palette of Kashmiri culture. These colors not only enhance the visual appeal of the boat but also evoke a sense of tradition and heritage. Moreover, even today, gold-colored shikara boats are the most common in Dal Lake.

Having two extremes, the boat rower (often called the ‘keeper’) sits at the extreme end while the tourist sits at the middle of the Shikara. On an average, a shikara can accommodate around four to six people. In order to propel these shikaras, the drivers employ heart shaped oars. Traditionally, while rowing hard, they move on the longer part of the deck with their oars, chanting “Ya Peer Dastagir” (“The Peer of all Peers, the Supporter”), a call for help and blessings during hardships and turmoil, to give them the courage and strength to cross the hurdles. Many of them believe that they are the descendants of Hazrat Nuh, known as Noah, which in Islam is recognized as a Prophet and the messenger of God.

Challenges:

While the Shikara is undoubtedly an iconic symbol of Kashmir, its future faces several challenges. Environmental concerns, including pollution and the encroachment of water bodies, threaten the pristine beauty of the lakes. Additionally, the rise of modern transportation options has led to a decline in traditional Shikara use for daily commuting.

Overall, the pandemic had quite a negative impact on the Kashmiri craft. Since August 2019, the low tourist thronging due has been the primary cause of low turnout. Many workshops were found desolated, lacking the usual staff. Moreover, the lack of young apprentices to learn the craft has resulted in dwindling numbers of skilled artisans, further jeopardising the future of this unique aspect of Kashmiri culture.

Historically, the river Jehlum had 800 houseboats, of which only 61 survived, as of 2022. Most have collapsed due to decay as the owners can’t afford to repair them again.

Introduction Process:

The making of a Shikara is a labor of love. Shikaras are handcrafted using traditional techniques, passed down through generations. Shikara making is a time consuming and hectic process, and it takes an average of about 10-20 days to make a shikara, depending upon the design. Skilled artisans invest weeks, if not months, in crafting these masterpieces judged with any other in the world.

Raw Materials:

Deodar wood, which is usually 25 to 41 feet in length, is used for shikaras, since it is quite durable, and does not decompose in water. Earlier shikaras were made of Deodar wood only, but now with the decline in the supply of deodar, the artisans are compelled to use Miranda wood which is less durable than Deodar wood. Shikaras made up of deodar wood cost around Rs. 1,80,000, while Miranda shikaras cost Rs. 1,50,000.

Tools & Tech:

Very basic tools like nails and iron clamps are used for boat making in Kashmir. No special technology is employed in the process, despite the advancement today. The people from the Hanji community still rely on their age-old boat making process, and take pride in keeping the craft roots intact.

Rituals:

No specific tradition is associated with the making of small shikara boats.

However, for larger houseboats, once the initial structure of the boat, called the “Nav-e-Nour” is ready, with its right and left side walls that go from front deck to back deck, the boat owner invites relatives and neighbors for the conduct of a function. The event is majorly aimed at pushing the Nav-e-Nour into the lake from land mass. After the half-constructed boat enters into the lake, an exclusive carpenter locally called ‘Nav Chaan’ is hired to construct the outside structure of the boat including windows, doors, railing design etc. to beautify the boat, and another carpenter does the boat’s interiors, and further other people are hired for the finishing touches as well. As per traditions, a houseboat is a group effort of many people. Each assigned with one segment of the making process.

process:

Traditionally, the craftsmen themselves go for selecting a suitable deodar tree. After selection they would split the entire tree in halves length ways with an axe. These wooden logs (called ‘waan-e-koot’) were then trimmed to a requisite thickness and hauled behind the boat for several miles on water course, before being left in the river or lake for two to three years to season. These days, however, the artisans source the wood from dealers.

Tree trunks of 20m in length were used to construct the sides of the boat. The wood is carefully carved and shaped into various parts of the boat, such as the hull, ribs, and deck. The fabrication of boats was generally carried out on a dry flat piece of ground. First of all, the bottom surface of the boat, called ‘Dalav’ is constructed. After its completion, the hull (‘Pashh’) is being built on the right and left side of the boat. When the base of the boat is ready and floating, the cabin of the boat is built on the stern part with a roof of matting, wooden shingles or match. After that it is systematically assembled. Once the skeleton of the boat is prepared, seating arrangements are organized in the central segment of the boat by positioning cushions and related upholstery over the built-in storage space underneath.

In order to avoid leakages through the structure, the nails and iron clamps used for joinery are flush and fixed into the wood diagonally when they are red hot, to ensure stronger bonding. These custom made rust-proof nails are made longer than the ones generally used. Extra care is taken to ensure that these stay hidden, and do not compromise the visual aesthetics of the boat. Caulking (a waterproof sealant), where intermittent gaps and creeks in the wooden body are sealed, uses a paste (made of wool given away by poplar trees and indigenous weeds), in order to avoid leakages through the structure.

According to interviews with some boatmen, it is also revealed that to ensure safety of the boat from getting sunk, the boat owner brings special grass including ‘bhang’ and ‘peichz’ and mixed it to each other to make a rope of it which is being placed in between the gap of two plugs in the bottom, that helps to stop the influence of lake water into the boat.

The final step involves applying a coat of lacquer, which not only enhances the boat’s beauty but also protects it from the elements.

The unique design allows for effortless maneuvering and provides a comfortable experience for passengers.

Waste:

Boat making is quite an ecofriendly process. Any leftover wood is used to build smaller boats, if size permits, or else for other daily activities in the region.

Cluster Name: Srinagar-Srinagar

Introduction:

One of the most beautiful cities this country houses, Srinagar is known for its elegance and marvel, straight out of a fairy tale. Wrapped in the hem of snow-capped mountains, the city holds in itself the most serene lakes, impeccable flower gardens, unending apple and apricot orchards and a plethora of handmade crafts of a variety of materials, unique only to the State of Jammu and Kashmir.

History:

Up-to 600 BC : According to the Rajatarangini, the oldest ruler was Gonanda I, who appears to have ruled in the days just before the Mahabharata. It is emperor Ashok who is said to have founded the city of Srinagari, now Srinagar. The dialect of the North was known for its purity hence Brahmanas flocked to the North for the purposes of study. This is corroborated by the fact that Takshshila became a centre of learning and classical Sanskrit was first developed in Kashmir.
Alexander left the King of Abhisara to rule in Kashmir. According to the Mahavimsa, the Third Buddhist Council met at Pataliputra (Patna) and deputed a missionary by the name of Majjhantika to go to Kashmir and Gandhara (in modern day Afghanistan).

320 to 1000 AD: According to Kalhana (referred to above), nearly the whole of the Gupta age was ruled by the Gonanada dynasty i.e. for about 300 yrs. (unlikely though). It is also believed that the Kushanas and the Huns ruled over Kashmir during this period. After them a new dynasty known as Karkota or Naga was founded by Durlabha-vardhana. He had married the daughter of the last Gonanada king and became king in 527 AD.
Lalitaaditya Muktapada in 724 AD, the greatest king of that dynasty followed him. He defeated the Tibetans and the Turks. Lalitaditya's son Vajraditya who ruled from 762 AD is said to have sold many Kashmiris to the Arabs of Sindh and introduced many Islamic practices in Kashmir. The Arab governor of Sind raided Kashmir around 770 and took many slaves / prisoners. The next successor was Jayapida referred to above. He was a brave general like his dada Lalitaditya. Away from Kashmir, he won some battles and lost others and ruled Kashmir from 770 ad up to the closing years of the eighth century. Thereafter, a series of Kings ruled Kashmir. The Karkota dynasty came to an end in 855-6 AD.

1000 TO 1800 AD: Around 1014 AD, Mahmud Ghazni plundered the Valley for the first time. He carried him with a large number of prisoners and converted to Islam. He returned in 1015 AD and made a fruitless attempt to capture the hill fort of Lohkot, modern day Loharin. He failed to capture the fort in 1021 AD too.

In 1301 ad, Suhadeva asserted his supremacy over Kashmir but had to face Dulucha, commander in chief of the King of Kandahar who took a large number of Kashmiris as slaves.  It is a very significant fact that the Himalayan countries of Kashmir, Nepal and Tibet came out of the mountain seclusion and enter the arena of Indian history and culture, almost simultaneously, from the seventh century onwards. Kashmir maintained this intimate association till the Muslims while Nepal; Tibet overran it until very recent times.
The next important king was Sikandar whose reign marks a turning point in the history of Kashmir from a religious/social perspective. Shahi Khan became the next king in 1420. He is the greatest king of Kashmir. The state became prosperous and he treated the Hindus well. He was well versed in Persian and Sanskrit, had the Mahabharata translated into Persian. He died in 1470 AD. From there on till 1530, there were a number of kings with treachery and instability being the name of the game.
A series of kings ruled Kashmir till 1540. It was then decided by Humayun's generals mainly Mirza Haidar to invade Kashmir. He conquered it in 1540.  His imprisonment in spite of a promise of safe custody is a dark blot on the character of the chivalrous Akbar. His son Yaqub continued fighting Akbar till he was defeated.

1800 TO 1947 AD: Afghans ruled it till 1819. As long as they got their annual tribute of Rs 20 lakhs a year, the Afghan king did not interfere in the administration. Maharaja Ranjit Singh conferred Jammu as a jagir to the family of Gulab Singh. Among the three traitors in The First Sikh War was the Dogra Chief Gulab Singh. As a reward for siding with the Brits he was given the state of Jammu and Kashmir in 1846 on payment of fifty lakhs rupees in cash.
Jammu and Kashmir was the biggest among the 562 princely Indian States that comprised two-fifths of the India under colonial rule for well over a century. Unlike the remaining 60 per cent area constituting the British India Provinces, these States possessed sovereignty in various degrees depending on their individual treaties with His Majesty's government; broadly speaking, they had a system of personal government while being under the overall suzerainty of the British Crown. The British Parliament's Indian Independence Act, 1947 (which received Royal Assent on 18th July that year) created two independent Dominions of India and Pakistan made up of the erstwhile British India Provinces. The Act freed the princely States from the Crown's paramountcy but denied them dominion status while permitting them to accede to India or to Pakistan.

If the state acceded to Pakistan, the non-Muslims of Jammu and Ladakh as well as considerable sections of Muslims led by the National Conference Party would definitely have resented such action. On the other hand, accession to India would have provoked adverse reactions in Gilgit and certain regions contiguous to Pakistan. Further, the road communications were with Pakistan and rivers flowing into Pakistan were transporting forest resources that constituted a considerable portion of the State's revenue.
In the early hours of 27th October 1947 began an operation the like of which had never before occurred in the history of warfare.  On 7th November the Indian troops won the battle of Shaltang, thereby removing all threats to Srinagar. Three days later, Baramulla was recaptured. The process of retreat by the enemy on all fronts began. With the Indian Army finding that the only way the raiders could be completely removed from Kashmir was by attacking their bases and sources of supply in Pakistan, India warned Pakistan on 22nd December 1947 that unless Pakistan denied her assistance and bases to the invaders, India would be compelled to take such action.

At that critical stage in J&K's history, 53 years ago, Lord Mountbatten urged our PM, Jawaharlal Nehru, about

"the overwhelming need for caution and restraint"

he stressed "how embroilment in war with Pakistan would undermine the whole of Nehru's independent foreign policy and progressive social aspirations. And, on Mountbatten's advice, Nehru decided to lodge a complaint to the United Nations Security Council. That was done on 31st December 31, 1947.

Geography:

Jammu & Kashmir is a mystifying land. It is a picturesque collage of various elements of nature that makes it an ideal tourist destination. The northern frontier of the state is fortified with the majestic mountains of the Himalaya Range. These ranges and their snow-capped peaks complete a picturesque landscape that includes crystal clear streams and lush green vegetation. Jammu and Kashmir is not a homogeneous land. It is marked by undulating topography and varied soil types that lead to the growth of diverse plants. These in turn, support numerous life forms to constitute an ecological pyramid.
In terms of climate, Jammu and Kashmir is unique. The vast distribution of topographical features is a cause of this fact. The controlling factor of the climate is the Himalayas. Except the dry plateaus of Ladakh, the state receives ample amounts of rainfall. Srinagar has a humid subtropical climate, much cooler than what is found in much of the rest of India, due to its moderately high elevation and northerly position. The valley is surrounded by the Himalayas on all sides. Winters are cool, with daytime a January average of 2.5 °C (36.5 °F), and temperatures below freezing at night. Moderate to heavy snowfall occurs in winter and the only road that connects Srinagar with the rest of India may get blocked for a few days due to avalanches. Summers are warm with a July daytime average of 24.1 °C (75.4 °F). The average annual rainfall is around 710 millimetres (28 in). Spring is the wettest season while autumn is the driest. The highest temperature reliably recorded is 38.3 °C (100.9 °F) and the lowest is −20.0 °C (−4.0 °F)

Perennial streams of fresh water crisscross the land. The streams water the land and sustain the lives of the people that inhabit the land. Winter season sees extensive precipitation in terms of snowfall. In the winter, the snow resembles a vast sheet of white blanket covering the valleys.

Environment:

The state of Jammu and Kashmir, possess a rich diversity of flora. An estimate puts the total number of plant species in the state at over 3000. These are unevenly distributed throughout the three regions of the state. For example, the dry frontiers of Ladakh have about 880 species, most of them able to withstand extreme climatic conditions. In Jammu, the number is over 500 species of plants. These estimations are inadequate since they include only certain groups of plants.

The flora of the state has a high degree of endemism. Some of the families of plants that are found here are found nowhere else. The plants that are found in Jammu and Kashmir are a majorly important part of the people that inhabit the state. The forests are the source of fodder, food, honey and other such commodities that lend a lot to the identity of the locals. Several plants with medicinal properties have been identified in the region. Locals as rudimentary medicines use many of these plants. The forests cover over 20% of the geographical area of Srinagar, constituting a vast reserve of natural wealth.
The diversity of avian species is remarkable. The 358 species of birds that have been recorded in the state can be catalogued into 179 genera and 16 orders. Many of these birds are migratory and navigate treacherous journeys to reach the promising land. The waters of the state provide habitat for 44 species of fish, categorized into 14 genera. Amphibians, such as frogs have been placed under 14 genera. The insect collection is infinite, with many of the species yet to be discovered. Mammals are represented by 75 species. These species themselves are subdivided into subspecies, represented by 54 genera further classified into 21 families. Among the mammals, it is the carnivores that occupy a chunk of the total mammals.
The abundance of faunal riches Jammu and Kashmir possesses is enviable. The state is the last refuge for many threatened animals and the state is doing the needful to prolong their survival. The protected areas of the region, its national parks and wildlife sanctuaries have been established. These provide a safe haven for these species for visitors to see and appreciate the rich natural heritage the state possess.

Hokersar, 14 km north of Srinagar, is a world-class wetland spread over 13.75 km2 including lakes and marshy area. Thousands of migratory birds come to Hokersar from Siberia and other regions in the winter season. It is the most accessible and well known of Kashmir's wetlands, which include Hygam, Shalibug and Mirgund. A record number of migratory birds have visited Hokersar in recent years.
Migratory birds from Siberia and Central Asia use wetlands in Kashmir as their transitory camps between September and October and again around spring. These wetlands play a vital role in sustaining a large population of wintering, staging and breeding birds. A record number of migratory birds have visited Hokersar in recent years.  Birds found in Hokersar 'Migratory ducks and geese, which include brahminy duck, tufted duck, gadwall, garganey, greylag goose, mallard, common merganser, northern pintail, common pochard, ferruginous pochard, red-crested pochard, ruddy shelduck, northern shoveller, common teal, and Eurasian wigeon.

Infrastructure:

Srinagar is a heavy cantonment area and it is the starting point to the Srinagar-Leh highway. Army movements and requirements have led to the city having impeccable roads and proper medical facilities and some very good hospitals, scattered across the city. Medical facilities are a heavy requirement in Srinagar because of the constant political and pseudo-social disruptions that the city and the state have to face together. Srinagar being the capital of Jammu and Kashmir has to be kept in order when it comes to the basic facilities because of it being the central point for the locals, the Indian army as well as prominent tourism. Electricity and water supplies are abundant and Srinagar has a large range of hotels of different tariffs and facilities to choose from. Markets are many and have all supplies for basic and luxurious living. Jammu and Kashmir mostly has manufacturing industries, small-scale industries, cottage industries etc. There are industries in almost all parts of Jammu and Kashmir but some areas have been marked as primarily and significantly industrial areas. Some of these important areas are:

• Industrial Growth Centre in Samba
• Integrated Infrastructure Development Project in Udhampur
• Industrial Complex in Bari Brahmana
• Industrial Estate in Zakura
• Industrial Growth Centre in Ompora

The Government of Jammu and Kashmir has also laid some policies for the development of industries in the state. Educational institutes are abundant with medical, engineering colleges along with a number of specialized colleges.

Srinagar Airport (IATA code SXR) has regular domestic flights to Leh, Jammu, Chandigarh and Delhi and occasional international flights. The International flights terminal was inaugurated on 14 February 2009 with an Air India flight from Dubai. Hajj flights also operate from this airport to Saudi Arabia. Srinagar is a station on the 119 km (74 mi) long Kashmir railway that started in October 2009 and connects Baramulla to Srinagar, Anantnag and Qazigund. The railway track also connects to Banihal across the Pir Panjal Mountains through a newly constructed 11 km long Banihal tunnel, and subsequently to the Indian railway network after a few years. It takes approximately 9 minutes and 30 seconds for train to cross the tunnel. It is the longest rail tunnel in India. This railway system, proposed in 2001, is not expected to connect the Indian railway network until 2017 at the earliest, with a cost overrun of INR5, 500 crores. The train also runs during heavy snow.

In December 2013, the 594m cable car allowing people to travel to the shrine of the Sufi saint Hamza Makhdoom on Hari Parbat was unveiled. The project is run by the Jammu and Kashmir Cable Car Corporation (JKCCC), and has been envisioned for 25 years. An investment of INR30cr was made, and it is the second cable car in Kashmir after the Gulmarg Gondola.

Architecture:

Architecture of Srinagar can be divided into at least three different time periods. Dating back in the history, before arrival of Parmars of Gujarat to Garhwal, and Srinagar's emergence as Capital in later time, the place was understandably a small hillside settlement scattered across the valley at an immediate sight. Excluding some Archaeological significance and recent findings, the place was much a junction and a stopover en-route Badrinath - Kedarnath.  Excluding recent excavations and few heritage sites around Srinagar which reveal some breath-taking findings of settlements, civilisations and remains of prehistoric era or around 3,000 - 5,000 B.C. resembling culture, these depict an age old Architecture scattered randomly in some remains and submerged structures. This tells us various things including the very Culture and Architecture of the region. Findings at Ranihat & Thapli villages are a thriving reference and much needs to be undertaken to unearth, study and preserve this heritage. The Himalayan Archaeological & Ethnography Museum is taking keen interests in this mission.

The pre-medieval time when Srinagar was a small centre, the architecture was houses with conventional mountain specific design complying the low temperatures, snow-falls, heavy rains, etc. features which are high altitude typicality. However, yet placed at a moderate height of about 579 meters and settled across a moderate mountain fare of the valley, it gained the real architectural momentum when King Ajaypal established Srinagar as Garhwal capital in 1358. Previously the office was at Devalgarh, some miles away from Srinagar. The architecture was a conventional Himalayan Architecture blended with some extravagant attempts.

Year 1803 and 1804 are most unfortunate episodes in the History of Srinagar & Garhwal. The devastating earthquake destroyed the relics of capital Srinagar. It brought down and literally destroyed the 'living' of Srinagar.  The period now is crucial phase, which makes a significant and more tangible architectural state of Srinagar. This composition is a well assessed, planned and better executed design of what is Srinagar of post the flood of 1894 till date. Never denying the recurrent floods and few more earthquakes, which took place during this period. Some officials made visits to few places and the present day Srinagar much resembling to Jaipur architecture as Jaipur's Architecture & Plans are reasonably followed to comply with Srinagar's exposition as:

a. A Big Valley Bazar
b. Garhwal Capital
c. Important Junction on Badrinath - Kedarnath route

However the volume and expansion of present day Srinagar is vast and wide comparing to other mountain towns. The old Architecture is visible and felt more in olden town area and the structures constructed within. Today, it is more a semi-urban structures yet rising in a random and unorganised manner across any available flat-patch of land. Typicality of high altitude and low temperature zones, snowfalls, foggy weather and unpredictable climate change, all have to play a vital role in designing a strong and rigid structure complying to the hillside rather than thinking and executing any pro-urban plans in this architecture.

Culture:

Like the state of Jammu and Kashmir, Srinagar too has a distinctive blend of cultural heritage. Holy places in and around the city depict the historical cultural and religious diversity of the city as well as the Kashmir valley.
The culture, language, and traditions of Srinagar reflect a life that of a typical any contemporary, regional Indian town. It has to exhibit much uniqueness with customs, traditions, climate and folklore of the territory, the landscape where it sits. Mostly, the Himalayan Hills are still a maiden mountain space, so different, so natural, simple and very much mystic. Yet a very cosmopolitan Indian culture of Srinagar places this Himalayan valley, the ancient Garhwali Capital differently.

The very Himalayan culture intermixed with Lower Northern & Upper Western India's cultures, presence of Nath Sect in olden times, being headquarter to some prominent socio-cultural movements in Uttarakhand, creations in form of paintings (later and now known as Garhwali Paintings) and poetry from famous Garhwali Languages spoken in Srinagar are mainly Garhwali, Hindi, Punjabi and English. 

Sufiana Music: Sufi music came to Kashmir from Iran in the 15th century. Over the years it has established itself as the classical music form of Kashmir and has incorporated a number of Indian Ragas in its body. There are only a few families in Kashmir who are practising this musical form in Kashmir. Jammu and Kashmir has the distinction of having multifaceted, variegated and unique cultural blend, making it distinct from the rest of the country, not only from the different cultural forms and heritage, but from geographical, demographically, ethical, social entities, forming a distinct spectrum of diversity and diversions into Kashmir, Jammu and Ladakh, all professing diverse religion, language and culture, but continuously intermingling, making it vibrant specimens of Indian Unity amidst diversity. Its different cultural forms like art and architecture, fair and festivals, rites and rituals, seer and sagas, language and mountains, embedded in ageless period of history, speak volumes of unity and diversity with unparalleled cultural cohesion and cultural service.
While the Kashmir has been the highest learning centre of Sanskrit and Persian where early Indo-Aryanise civilization has originated and flourished, it has also been embracing point of advent of Islam bringing its fold finest traditions of Persian civilization, tolerance, brotherhood and sacrifice.
The Dumhal is a famous dance in the Kashmir Valley, performed by men of the Wattal region. The women perform the Rouff, another traditional folk dance. Kashmir has been noted for its fine arts for centuries, including poetry and handicrafts. Shikaras, traditional small wooden boats, and houseboats are a common feature in lakes and rivers across the Valley.
Jammu and Kashmir is a state of different religions and beliefs. And accordingly, the customs followed and festivals celebrated are many. But the heartening thing about the all festivals here are that people of all faiths together with same enthusiasm celebrate them. Main festivals include - Eid-ul-Fitr, Baisakhi, Lohri and Hemis Festival.

People:

As of 2011 census, Srinagar city's population was 1,192,792. Both the city and the urban agglomeration has average literacy rate of approximately 71%, whereas the national average is 74.04%. The child population of both the city and the urban agglomeration is approximately 12% of the total population. Males constituted 53.0% and females 47.0% of the population. The sex ratio in the city area is 888 females per 1000 males, whereas in the urban agglomeration it is 880 per 1000, and nationwide value of this ratio is 940. The predominant religion of Srinagar is Islam with 95% of the population being Muslim. Hindus constitute the second largest religious group representing 4% of the population. The remaining 1% of the population is Sikhs, Buddhist and Jains.
The Kashmiri people are a Dardic ethno-linguistic group living in or originating from the Kashmir Valley, located in the Indian administered part of the disputed state of Jammu and Kashmir. There are both Hindu and Muslim Kashmiris. Other ethnic groups living in the state include Gujjars, Bakarwals, Dogras, Punjabis and Gaddis.

The Constitution of India does not allow people from regions other than Jammu and Kashmir to purchase land in the state. As a consequence, houseboats became popular among those who were unable to purchase land in the Valley and has now become an integral part of the Kashmiri lifestyle. Kawa, traditional green tea with spices and almond, is consumed all through the day in the chilly winter climate of Kashmir. Most of the buildings in the Valley and Ladakh are made from softwood and are influenced by Indian, Tibetan, and Islamic architecture.

According to language research conducted by the International Institute of UCLA, the Kashmiri language is "a North-western Dardic language of the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-Iranian subfamily of the Indo-European language family." There is, however, no universally agreed genetic basis for the language. UCLA estimates the number of speakers as being around 4.4 million, with preponderance in the Kashmir Valley, whereas the 2001 census of India recorded 5,362,349 throughout India, and thus excluding speakers in the non-Indian Kashmiri areas. The people living in Azad Kashmir speak Pothohari dialect that is also known as Pahari language. Pothohari is also spoken in neighbouring regions as well. There are approximately 4.6 million people living within Pakistani administered Azad Kashmir, this does not include the population living in Gilgit-Baltistan which if included increases the number to 6.4 million people. Most of these people speak languages other than Kashmiri, and are not ethnic Kashmiris, as they do not trace their origins to the Kashmir valley.
The people of Kashmir are believed to be the descendants of the immigrants from India proper. As Buddhism spread here, people from far and wide came for research and study. People of Kashmir experience a culture that is an amalgamation of a number of other cultures they came in contact with. Roman, Greek and Persian civilizations have influenced the culture of Kashmiri people to quite an extent. Kashmiri population is a blend of people belonging to distinct races with different looks, dresses, food habits, customs, traditions, rituals, etc. Have a look at the people and main ethnic groups in Jammu and Kashmir.

Kashmiri Pundits: Kashmiri Pundits are amongst the original inhabitants of the valley. They used to dominate the region of Kashmir, at one point of time. However, acute terrorism in the Kashmir valley forced them to migrate to other places in the country. Today, their population has been reduced to minority in Kashmir.

Kashmiri Muslims: Approximately ninety per-cent of the population of Kashmir consists of Kashmiri Muslims. Muslims belonging to both the Shia sect and the Sunni sect reside in the valley. They are considered to be quite skilful in arts and crafts. Their other occupations include agriculture, sheep rearing, cattle rearing and other cottage industries.

Gujjars: Gujjars are considered to be the Rajasthani Rajputs, who converted to Muslim faith. They belong to the hilly area of Kashmir and are generally herdsmen by occupation. Tall and well built, Gujjars have notably Jewish features.

Kashmiri women love to dress up with a lot of ornaments. Almost every body part, be it the head, ears, neck, arms or ankles, is adorned with jewellery. A typical ornament of a married Kashmiri pundit woman is Dejharoo. It is a pair of gold pendants, which hangs on a silk thread or gold chain and passes through holes in the ears pieced at the top end of the lobes. The Muslim women are quite fond of wearing a bunch of earrings. The typical dress of a Kashmiris man is Pheran, a long loose gown hanging down below the knees. The men wear a skullcap, a close-fitting salwar (Muslims) or churidar pyjama (Pundits) and lace less shoes called gurgabi. In case of Kashmiri women, the Pheran is either knee-length (Muslim) or touching the feet (Hindu). The Pheran is tied at the waist with folded material called lhungi.

Famous For:

Indulgent houseboats, historic gardens, distinctive Kashmiri wooden mosques and a mild summer climate combine to make Srinagar one of India's top domestic tourist attractions. Except, that is, when inter-communal tensions paralyse the city with strikes and curfews. Srinagar's three main areas converge around Dal-gate, where the nose of Dal Lake passes through a lock gate. Northwest lies the Old City, fascinatingly chaotic in normal times but largely out-of-bounds during curfews. The busy commercial centre is southwest around Lal Chowk. The city's greatest draw card is mesmerizingly placid Dal Lake, which stretches in a south western channel towards the city centre, paralleled by the hotel-lined Boulevard from which a colourful array of houseboats form a particularly colourful scene. This area usually remains free of trouble even during the worst disturbances, as do the famous Mughal gardens, strung out over several kilometres further east around the lake.
Reaching Srinagar is quite easy as it is well connected via air, rail and road. Mini-buses and Auto- rickshaws form an integral part of the intra-city transport. The best time to come to Srinagar is between October and June. However, each season brings it's own beauty. Marvellous Spring, enjoyable summer and frosty winter, all have their characteristic beauty to offer.

Gallery

Craftsmen

List of craftsmen.

Documentation by:

Team Gaatha

Process Reference:

Cluster Reference: