Bone Carving ~ Lucknow

Introduction:

Usage:

The craft of bone carving dates back to prehistoric times, when bones were used for making ornaments & utility articles. Utility was often merged with unique self-expression to create objects like weapons, beads, combs and other unusual artefacts from animal bones.

In earlier times, bone carvings were often made for specific rituals and ceremonies. Intricately carved bone handles, for instance, were used for traditional daggers, ritualistic knives, and sacred objects. These objects were believed to possess protective qualities and were used in rituals and practices, sometimes associated with protection from Evil eye (buri nazar) and were also considered auspicious in tantra-mantra traditions.

Bone was also widely used in traditional Indian jewellery, especially among tribal communities, where it held cultural significance and was worn as ornaments.

Today, bone carving has evolved into a contemporary craft that blends tradition with modern aesthetics. Intricately carved bone pendants, beads, bangles, and earrings showcase the skill of artisans and have become a hallmark of the craft in current markets. A wide range of products are now available, including necklaces, cufflinks, rings, bracelets, boxes, pen stands, bookmarks, flower vases, perfume bottles, and decorative daggers.

The craft has also expanded into utility and lifestyle products such as stationery items like, pen stands, pens, paperweights, and visiting card holders, as well as home décor pieces like clocks, lamps, boxes, and showpieces. These products are often used for corporate gifting and personal gifting purposes.

Due to the delicate nature of bone, the carved products require careful handling, as they can break if dropped.

Today, the primary demand comes from urban markets such as Hyderabad, Bangalore, Kolkata, and Mumbai, with many products also being exported. Among all items, lamps are the most popular, followed by perfume bottles and agarbatti stands. The price of these handcrafted pieces typically ranges from ₹100 to ₹50,000, depending on the intricacy and scale of the object.

Significance:

Bone carving is a traditional craft practised across several regions in India, including Kolkata, Delhi, Sambhal, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Lucknow, and Barabanki. In the Maliaraiganj area of Barabanki, there are around 200 karkhanas (workshops) engaged in this craft. Overall, it is estimated that nearly 1,000 artisans practice the craft of bone carving.

In Uttar Pradesh, the craft is primarily practised in the lanes of Daulatganj, Khadra and Campbell Road in Lucknow. Today, approximately 200 to 300 artisans continue to practice this craft in Lucknow. The craft is predominantly practiced by the Muslim community, with only one or two Hindu artisians.

Each region in India has developed its own distinctive style within bone carving. In Jodhpur, Rajasthan, artisans are known for carving and painting containers and lamp bases, often using camel bone. Jaipur is recognised for its detailed and narrative-style painting on carved bone objects. The region of Sambhal has received a Geographical Indication (GI) tag for its bone craft, is particularly known for bone inlay work used in furniture, photo frames and trays. Kolkata is known for sculptural bone carvings, while Lucknow is especially renowned for its delicate jaali and naqqashi work.

Beyond India, bone carving traditions are also prominent in regions such as Ukraine and Bali, where artisans create highly intricate pieces with distinct visual styles that differ significantly from Indian traditions.

Historically, bone carving in India was influenced by Persian aesthetics during the Mughal period. The use of intricate motifs, calligraphy, and jaali patterns reflects this influence, making the craft not only decorative but also symbolic, often associated with wealth, piety, and power among the Mughal nobility.

The revival of bone carving in Lucknow has been supported by both government and private initiatives. Through public private partnerships, artisans are provided opportunities to conduct workshops and train younger generations, often supported by stipends and structured programs. Institutions such as the Uttar Pradesh Vigyan Manch, Mahila Kalyan Nigam and Kamla Nehru Seva Sadan have played a significant role in funding awareness initiatives and promoting craft-based livelihoods. These efforts have helped restore both economic stability and cultural pride among artisan communities.

Recognition through awards, including the National Award and State Awards, has brought visibility to artisans. However, despite such recognition, sustaining livelihoods within this craft remains a continuing challenge. Jalauddin Akhtar ji from Lucknow received the State Award in 2002, and the National Award in 2009, giving the craft a wide recognition.

Myths & Legends:

no stories

History:

The craft of Bone carving practised in Lucknow is a century-old, intricate craft that was historically supported by Nawabi patronage. It is believed to be around 700–800 years old.

The origins of bone carving in India can be traced back much further. Archaeological evidence from the Indus Valley Civilisation, particularly from sites like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, reveals carved bone objects such as beads and pins. These were primarily utilitarian in nature, indicating an early familiarity with the material.

The craft flourished during the Mughal period, especially under emperors like Jahangir and Shah Jahan, when artistic practices such as inlay work, miniature painting, and jaali carving reached remarkable levels of refinement. During this time, artisans began substituting ivory with camel and buffalo bone, adapting to changing material availability while preserving the finesse of Mughal aesthetics. Resulting in an overall decline of this craft of bone carving for a few years.

Under the Nawabs of Awadh, Lucknow emerged as a major centre of craftsmanship. Bone carving became an integral part of the city’s artistic identity, reflecting the ornamental language seen in monuments like Bara Imambara and Rumi Darwaza. The Nawabs patronised artisans by providing financial support and social prestige, enabling the craft to thrive.

Lucknow was also historically an important centre for ivory carving; however, following the global ban on ivory trade in 1989, artisans transitioned to carving camel and buffalo bone. This shift positioned bone carving as a more sustainable and ethical alternative, as it relies on waste material.

Traditionally, camel bones were used as the primary material; however, in present times, buffalo bones are more commonly used. These bones are sourced from slaughterhouses, utilising waste material from the meat industry that would otherwise be discarded.

Earlier, artisans primarily created items such as boxes, daggers, vases, necklaces, and miniature models like the Taj Mahal. However, over time, the range of products has evolved. A significant shift occurred around 2016–17, when the National Institute of Fashion Technology (NIFT) invited the artisan from Lucknow for collaborative workshops at its Raebareli campus. These workshops introduced new design approaches, tools, and market strategies, leading to the development of contemporary products such as cufflinks, brooches, and other small-scale accessories.

Typically, bone carving has been practised predominantly by Muslim artisan communities. However, in recent years, some Hindu artisans have also begun to learn the craft and produce smaller items, indicating a gradual expansion of the artisan base.

Design:

The main visual elements in bone carving include motifs of animals, birds, peacocks, flowers, and Urdu calligraphy. The craft of Bone carving from Lucknow is particularly known for its delicate phool-wali jaali (floral lattice work) and Arabic calligraphy. These jaali designs are extremely intricate and draw direct inspiration from the architectural language of Lucknow, especially the lattice screens seen in monuments like the Bara Imambara.

Floral patterns such as bel-patti are commonly used across a variety of products, including boxes, jewellery, lamps, and other decorative objects. Most motifs are inspired by nature and Awadhi architecture, and artisans typically create original designs rather than copying existing ones.

Broadly, the work in Lucknow can be categorised into two types. The first is jaali or lattice work, a defining feature of Mughal architecture, which is extensively used in jewellery boxes, lamps, and other hollow objects. The second is carving designs which is done on thicker pieces of bone and often depicts detailed hunting or forest scenes featuring elephants, tigers, parrots, peacocks, and flowering trees.

The range of products is extensive, including lamps, paper knives, pen stands, pens, juda (hairbun) sticks, bookmarks, combs, buttons, earrings, necklaces, clocks, vases, rings, pendants, and decorative items such as the ambari elephant. Some products, such as clocks and flower vases, also incorporate painting. In such cases, small square pieces of bone are cut and meticulously assembled onto a wooden base, after which they are sent to Rajasthan for painting. A single flower vase of about two feet in height may consist of 600–700 small bone pieces assembled together.

The size of the products varies widely, from small jewellery items like earrings to large customised pieces such as lamps up to 50 inches in height. Over time, bone naturally changes colour, developing a warm yellowish-brown colour. Older pieces are often considered more valuable due to this ageing effect. In some contemporary products, artisans also apply finishes to create an oxidised appearance of an older piece. 

The Awadhi style of bone carving is deeply influenced by the region’s architectural heritage, reflected in its intricate jaali patterns and floral ornamentation. This style is visible in objects such as jewellery boxes, pen holders, decorative pieces, and figurines, echoing the grandeur of landmarks like the Bara Imambara, Chota Imambara, and Rumi Darwaza in Lucknow.

Bone carvings in India encompass a wide range of subjects and symbolism. Drawing from the country’s rich biodiversity, artisans frequently depict flora and fauna such as birds, elephants, peacocks, and lotus flowers, each carrying cultural and spiritual meanings related to beauty, fertility, and protection.

Challenges:

Very few skilled practitioners of this craft remain today. Without proper preservation and support, it may face extinction within the next 50 years,as told by the artisan.

Many of the carvers are withdrawing from the craft & shifting towards other professions for a better livelihood. There is inadequate and inappropriate promotion of the craft in India but a huge demand in the international market. The need is to bridge these gaps.

Introduction Process:

The craft of bone carving has a 4 to 5 day process that involves cutting the bone, boiling it in a soda solution to remove fat, carving, bleaching it with hydrogen peroxide, and polishing. Artisans use specialised tools to carve and shape bones into intricate designs. Using small chisels, gouges, files, and drills, the artisan gradually removes excess material to create the intended form and detailed patterns. The complete process requires great precision, patience, and a deep understanding of the craft.

Raw Materials:

The main raw material is the bones. Artisans use buffalo bones, which are obtained from slaughterhouses. These bones are the waste material left behind after the buffalo meat is exported, which would have otherwise been buried. Different parts of the bone are used for specific purposes based on their shape, thickness, and strength:

Gola – Used for making showpieces
Bhanhu – Suitable for smaller items such as earrings and pendants
Tersoor – The main leg bone; thick and wide, used for a variety of products. It is considered the best quality bone, from which strips up to 1 inch thick can be obtained, costing around ₹60 per piece
Tedhi Nali – Used for pendants
Paaya – Thin bones used for making pens and rings

Unfinished bone pieces typically cost around ₹80 per kg, whereas flat, finished, treated, whitened large bones cost around ₹500- ₹800 per kg, the price varies depending on quality and availability.

In addition to bone, artisans use supporting materials such as Fevicol (adhesive) for joining pieces and resham ka dhaga (silk thread) for assembling jewellery like necklaces and bracelets.

Tools & Tech:

Aari (handsaw) – Traditionally used for cutting bones
Motor machine – Used to cut bones, smoothen them and also for buffing
Drilling machine (Barma) – Used to make holes in the bone
Basul – A hammer-like tool used for peeling off the outer layer of the bone
Teherka / Chausi (chisels) – Used for carving and detailing
Tekora – A fine tool made from thin wire, used to file and refine the small holes in jaali work
Tipehal – Used for adding fine detailing to the carving
Reti (files) – Used for smoothing and shaping surfaces
Regmal (sandpaper) – Used for further smoothing and finishing
Chakki Patthar – A grinding stone base that provides stability while working
Thiya – A circular wooden base with a stand, used to hold and support the workpiece
Hydrogen peroxide – Used to clean and enhance the natural appearance of the bone
Khari Soda– Used to remove the oily surface and whiten the bone
Buffing soap – Used in the final stage to polish and give shine to the finished product

Rituals:

Bones have been associated with tantra-mantra practices, in which they are considered auspicious and believed to offer protection from buri nazar (evil eye). Historically, bone ornaments such as necklaces and other jewellery were worn by tribal communities, carrying both cultural and symbolic significance.

process:

Bone carving is an intricate craft and can take anywhere from a few hours to several months, depending on the product’s complexity. Typically, a single piece may be made by an individual artisan from start to finish, or at times, 5 to 6 artisans work collaboratively, each specialising in a different stage.

The process begins with bringing buffalo bones from the slaughterhouse. These bones are first cleaned and prepared. Using Basuli (a hammer-like tool), the outer layer of the bone is carefully peeled off. This step is crucial, as the outer surface is yellowish and contains impurities. Once removed, it reveals the smooth, white inner surface suitable for carving.

The bones are then cut into smaller pieces using an Aari (handsaw) or the motor machine. After cutting, they are washed with khari soda (used to wash clothes) to remove oil, fat, grease, and organic matter. This process prevents decomposition, reduces odor and also whitens the bone.

Once cleaned, the bone pieces are dried and then sanded on motor machines fitted with circular plates to achieve a smooth and flat surface.

The design process begins with marking the surface. Artisans draw patterns and refine them using a prakar (compass tool) to ensure symmetry and accuracy. The carving is then carried out using tools such as chisels (Teherka/Chausi), files (Reti), and drills. Small holes are created using a drilling machine or a hand drill with fine needles. Notably, intricate jaali (lattice) work is done entirely by hand, as machines cannot achieve the same level of delicacy and control.

There are two main types of naqqashi prominent in Lucknow-
Jaali work – intricate pierced lattice patterns, which are the most popular and characteristic of Lucknow
Carving – creating surface-level, two-dimensional designs like animals, birds, trees, flowers,

Often, multiple jaali components (around 5–6 pieces) are created separately and later assembled to form a single product, such as a lamp.

Following this, the carved bone pieces are treated with hydrogen peroxide. By soaking them for 8–10 hours in Hydrogen peroxide, in a closed box in direct sunlight (or a bulb is placed under the box) to assist in the whitening process. This step cleans the material further and gives it a uniform, bright appearance.

The final stage is polishing and finishing. The product is buffed on a motor machine using buffing soap (polish batti), which enhances the shine and brings out the intricate details.

In many cases, especially for larger items, small pieces of carved bone are joined together using adhesives like Fevicol. These may be assembled onto a wooden base (for example, in lamps or vases) and left to dry for about a day. Some products are further sent for painting to Jaipur, where various visual narratives are painted onto them.

For giving certain products a brown, vintage appearance, artisans may use dyes or natural techniques such as boiling the product with tea leaves. This step is optional and depends on the design.

Over time, bone naturally develops a warm yellowish-brown shade, adding character and value to the craft.

Despite the availability of mechanised tools such as laser cutting, artisans largely avoid it as the intense heat generated by lasers can burn, discolour, and weaken the bone, compromising both its durability and aesthetic quality. Therefore, traditional and semi-mechanised techniques remain preferred, as they offer greater control and preserve the integrity of the material.

Waste:

The waste that is generated is the bone powder or certain leftover bone pieces. These leftovers are used for various purposes and do not go to waste. The crushed bone powder is utilised and sold for various purposes, including use in medicines, fertilisers, and as feed for certain animals. Sometimes these leftovers are further recycled and used as manure in agriculture.

Cluster Name: Lucknow

Introduction:

Lucknow, the capital of Uttar Pradesh, is a multicultural city known for its rich diversity, beautiful gardens, and distinct musical heritage. Situated along the Gomti River, it flourished under the patronage of the Persian-influenced Nawabs, who fostered courtly manners, poetry, music, and fine cuisine. Popularly known as the City of Nawabs, Lucknow has also been referred to as the Golden City of the East, Shiraz-i-Hind, and the Constantinople of India. It is renowned for its unique composite culture, known as the Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb.

History:

Lucknow, the capital of Uttar Pradesh, has a rich and layered history that traces back to ancient times. It is believed to have been part of the Kosala Mahajanapada, ruled by the Suryavanshi (Ikshvaku) dynasty, with links to Ayodhya and Shravasti. According to tradition, the city was originally known as Lakhanapuri, named after Lakshmana, the brother of Lord Rama, which later evolved into its present name, Lucknow.

From the 14th century onward, Lucknow came under successive rulers, including the Delhi Sultanate, the Mughals, the Nawabs of Awadh, and later the British. Its prominence grew during the Mughal period, especially after Emperor Akbar established the province of Oudh in 1580. Its modern history begins in 1732, when Mohammed Amin, also known as Saadat Khan, a Persian adventurer, was appointed the governor of Awadh, of which Lucknow was a part. His successors came to be known as the Nawab Wazirs. In 1775, Nawab Asaf-ud-Daulah shifted the capital from Faizabad to Lucknow, marking the city’s rise as a major political and cultural centre.

Under the Nawabs, Lucknow flourished as a hub of art, architecture, and refined culture. Magnificent structures such as the Bara Imambara, Rumi Darwaza, and Chhota Imambara were built during this period, reflecting a blend of Mughal, Persian, and later European influences. The migration of artists and craftsmen from declining Mughal centres further enriched the city’s cultural landscape, shaping its identity of elegance, courtly etiquette, and artistic excellence.

The annexation of Awadh by the British East India Company in 1856 and the uprising of 1857 marked a turning point, leading to the loss of many historical records and structures. Despite this, Lucknow retained its cultural legacy and continued to evolve.

Today, Lucknow stands as a vibrant, cosmopolitan city that balances its historic heritage with modern development. Known for its architecture, cuisine, and manners (tehzeeb), it remains a significant cultural and urban centre where tradition and modernity coexist seamlessly.

Geography:

Lucknow, the capital of Uttar Pradesh, is located in the northern Gangetic plains of India at approximately 26.50° N latitude and 80.50° E longitude, with an average elevation of about 123 metres above sea level. The city lies along the Gomti River, its primary geographical feature, which flows through Lucknow.

Situated in the heart of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, Lucknow is surrounded by towns and districts such as Malihabad, Kakori, Mohanlalganj, Gosainganj, Chinhat, and Itaunja. It is bordered by Barabanki to the east, Unnao to the west, Raebareli to the south, and Sitapur and Hardoi to the north.

Morphologically, the city can be divided into three zones: the central business district (including Hazratganj, Aminabad, and Chowk), a middle residential zone, and an outer zone comprising newly incorporated villages.

Lucknow experiences a varied climate with extreme summers and winters, influenced by its geographical location. Its strategic position also makes it well-connected by air, rail, and road, contributing to its growth as a major urban centre.

Environment:

Lucknow has a humid subtropical climate, characterised by hot summers, cool winters, and a distinct monsoon season. Being a landlocked city in the Indo-Gangetic plains, it experiences a continental climate with significant seasonal variations.

Winters are cool and dry, with temperatures ranging between 3°C and 25°C, often accompanied by fog from mid-December to late January. Summers are extremely hot and dry, with temperatures typically ranging from 38°C to 45°C, occasionally reaching up to 46°C during heatwaves.

The monsoon season brings most of the annual rainfall, with about 75–90% occurring between June and September due to southwest monsoon winds. The average annual rainfall ranges between 800 mm and 1000 mm, leading to increased humidity and cloud cover during this period. Overall, Lucknow’s climate is marked by extreme temperatures, seasonal humidity, and a strong dependence on the monsoon.

Infrastructure:

Lucknow, the capital of Uttar Pradesh, is a major transportation hub in northern India, well connected by air, rail, and road networks.

Air Connectivity
The Chaudhary Charan Singh International Airport is located in Amausi, about 14 km from the city centre. The airport connects Lucknow to major Indian cities such as Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, and Kolkata, along with international destinations including Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Muscat, and Bangkok.

Rail Connectivity
Lucknow has a strong railway network, with Charbagh Railway Station being the primary and one of the busiest stations in North India. The station is also known for its distinctive Indo-Saracenic architecture, reflecting the city’s cultural heritage.

Road Connectivity
Lucknow is well connected by a network of national highways, including NH-24, NH-25, and NH-28. Major expressways such as the Agra Expressway and Purvanchal Expressway link the city to key regions of Uttar Pradesh and beyond.

Apart from transportation, Multiple software and IT companies are also present in the city. Lucknow is an emerging automobile hub. It has been the headquarters of the Central Command of the Indian Army. It is the home of several prominent educational and research institutes and universities, including the IIM Lucknow, the Indian Institute of Information Technology, Lucknow, AKTU and the Central Drug Research Institute. Lucknow is designated as a City of Gastronomy by UNESCO.

Architecture:

Lucknow, the seat of the Nawabs of Awadh, is renowned for its rich architectural heritage, which reflects a unique blend of cultural influences. The city’s architecture is a distinctive blend of Indo-Islamic, Mughal, Persian, and European styles, often termed "Awadhi-European" or Indo-Saracenic.

During the Nawabi period (18th–19th century), architecture in Lucknow flourished under royal patronage. The Nawabs encouraged experimentation and creativity, allowing architects and craftsmen the freedom to blend diverse styles. This resulted in a unique hybrid form often described as an Indo-European or Awadhi-European style, where Mughal and Persian aesthetics merged with emerging European influences. Among the extant architecture, there are religious buildings such as imambaras, mosques and other Islamic shrines, and secular structures like enclosed gardens, baradaris, and palace complexes.

Lucknow is home to several iconic monuments, such as the Bara Imambara, Rumi Darwaza, and Chhota Imambara, which exemplify the grandeur of Nawabi architecture. These structures are characterised by large vaulted halls and intricate ornamentation. Elements like jaali (lattice screens), baradaris (pavilions with multiple openings), chhatris (domed pavilions), enclosed gardens (baghs), and underground chambers (taikhanas) are prominent features. The use of lakhauri bricks, lime plaster, and delicate stucco work further defines the material character of the architecture.

A distinctive symbolic motif in Lucknow’s architecture is the fish, often used as an auspicious emblem on gateways and buildings. Structures like the Rumi Darwaza, inspired by Turkish gateways, serve as iconic landmarks and reflect cross-cultural influences.

Culture:

Chauk and Aminabad are the main bazaars, the hub of artistic activity and the only place where one can come closest to experiencing the renowned Adab, refined courtesy of Lucknow. The way of speaking, the boli, the Urdu words are well known in Lucknow.

Lucknow, often called the Golden City of the East, is known for its refined culture, elegance, and warmth, popularly referred to as Lucknowi Tehzeeb. This composite culture reflects the harmonious coexistence of communities over centuries, with Urdu as a central language of expression. The Nawabs of Awadh played a key role in shaping this cultural richness by patronising arts, literature, and lifestyle.

The city is renowned for its hospitality (mehman-nawazi), refined manners (adab), traditional attire, music, dance, and cuisine. Cultural practices such as ghazals, sher-o-shairi, and classical music flourished here, along with dance forms like Kathak, particularly the Lucknow Gharana, which was nurtured under royal patronage and later represented by masters like Pandit Birju Maharaj.

Festivals like Muharram hold deep cultural significance, marked by processions and rituals. Also various exciting games like Patangbazi, Baterbazi & Kabutarbazi are very prominent in the city.

The historic Chowk area remains the cultural heart of Lucknow, where artisans, traders, performers, and craftsmen have long contributed to its vibrant and living heritage.

People:

The people of Lucknow reflect a rich cultural diversity, with major religions including Hinduism and Islam, along with other communities living harmoniously. The city is known for its refined social culture, often referred to as Lucknowi Tehzeeb, which emphasises politeness, hospitality, and graceful conduct. Traditional attire for women includes sarees and salwar-kameez, often adorned with chikankari embroidery, while men traditionally wear kurta-pyjama or sherwani. Today, the urban population blends these traditions with contemporary fashion.

Lucknow has also been home to many prominent personalities across various fields. Notable figures include Birju Maharaj, a legendary exponent of the Lucknow gharana of Kathak, Javed Akhtar, known for his contribution to Hindi cinema and poetry, Anup Jalota, famous for devotional music, Naseeruddin Shah, a celebrated figure in Indian theatre and film, and Atal Bihari Vajpayee, a respected political leader. These individuals highlight Lucknow’s strong cultural, artistic, and intellectual legacy.

Famous For:

Lucknow is renowned for its rich cultural heritage, refined lifestyle, and traditional craftsmanship. The city is especially famous for its intricate embroidery styles, Chikankari and Lakhnawi Zardozi, which are widely appreciated in India and abroad and contribute significantly to its small-scale industry and economy.

The city is also known for its historic monuments, including the Bara Imambara, Chhota Imambara, Rumi Darwaza, Husainabad Clock Tower, and the Residency, which reflect its Nawabi architectural grandeur.

Lucknow’s cultural identity is defined by its Lucknowi Tehzeeb, known for politeness, hospitality (mehman-nawazi), and refined manners (adab). The city is also a centre for classical music, poetry (ghazals and sher-o-shairi), and Kathak dance, particularly the Lucknow gharana.

Traditional activities like kite flying (patangbazi) and pigeon rearing continue to be part of its living culture. The historic Chowk area remains a vibrant hub of artisans, traders, and cultural life.

Additionally, Lucknow is known for its prominent educational institutions, such as La Martiniere College, its diverse religious sites, and its gardens and green spaces. The city is also renowned for its Awadhi cuisine, including dishes like kebabs and biryani, along with sweets such as revadi and the famous Dussehri mangoes.

Gallery

Craftsmen

List of craftsmen.

Documentation by:

Process Reference:

https://aud.delhi.gov.in/sites/default/files/inline-files/dharohar_e-magazine_iii.pdf

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/395363759_BONE_CARVING_IN_LUCKNOWA_LIVING_TRADITION_OF_ART#:~:text=The%20decline%20of%20the%20Mughal,the%20architectural%20grandeur%20of%20Lucknow’

https://www.dsource.in/resource/bone-carving-lucknow/tools-and-raw-materials

https://gaatha.com/bones-carving-craft-uttar-pradesh/

Cluster Reference: